Shui (Water). Source: The Report of the National Flood Relief Commission Chen, Janet Y. Rapid growth in the use of medical devices in health-care settings has been enabled by technological advancements, such as drug–device combination products, automation and wireless technology, and advanced clinical application of devices.1 The estimation of the global market for medical devices increased from 260 billion United States dollars (US$) in 2006 to over US$ 380 billion in 2016.2The quality of devices, however, can vary and even the best-designed products can fail in clinical practice. “Xinyang yu Quanzheng: 1931 nian Gaoyou ‘Da Chenghuang’ Fengchao zhi Yanjiu. In this case, however, Noguchi had erred. Y. Y. Kueh, Agricultural Instability in China, 1931-1990: Weather, Technology, and Institutions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p.178. – “Water Calamities and Dike Management in the Jianghan Plain in the Qing and the Republic.” Late Imperial China 27, no. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014. The flood zone was roughly equivalent in size to England and half of Scotland, or the states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut combined. … “Flood in China and Italian Dam Burst Take Heavy Toll”. Excessive deforestation, wetland reclamation, and the over-extension of river dyke networks transformed regular flood pulses, which were an integral feature of the fluvial ecosystem, into destructive inundations, which wrought chaos upon human communities. The flood also provided a perfect habitat for mosquitoes, which gave rise to a malaria outbreak that eventually killed an estimated 300,000 people. Pietz, David A. The survival of members of flood-stricken communities cannot be explained simply by examining charity and relief. Unfortunately the physical impact of the flood was so intense that even relatively strong urban dyke networks were compromised. A number of these can be found in a volume entitled The First Wife. II.1 Ever since the finding of two cuneiform tablets in 1929, the stratum in which they occurred has been of the greatest interest; it was to the elucidation of this layer that we devoted most of our resources in 1930 and 1931. The first is the figure of 140,000 fatalities which has been reproduced in some English language studies of the period. [3] Telegram from C.E. This was actually an estimate of the number of people drowned, which did not account for … Whilst the roots of the 1931 flood lay in a slowly unfolding pattern of environmental history, the proximate cause of the disaster was extremely high levels of precipitation. Ka-Che Yip, 103-120 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009), p.104. James Kent noted in his copy of the “Report on Manufactures”: “Mr. Sha Qingqing. Eventually the region descended into hydraulic crisis, with low-level water control problems being punctuated by catastrophic flood disasters. 29–37. Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1996: pp. Liang, M.T. The Report of the National Flood Relief Commission offers a comprehensive analysis of the relief effort from the perspective of the government. Soong), a prominent politician in the Guomindang and brother-in-law of Chiang Kai-shek.[25]. The North China Herald “Changes in Dryness/Wetness In China During the Last 529 Years.” International Journal of Climatology 20 (2000): 1003–1015. [1], Although its early work in yellow fever was concentrated in South America, the IHD began to redirect a large portion of its funding to Africa in 1929. [15] The ongoing conflict between the Guomindang and the Communist Party amplified the impact of the subsistence crisis. All rights reserved. Letter from Walter C. Teagle to C. O. Swain, August 12, 1919. Wang Lin. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1968. Wu, “The Variation of Floods in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River and its teleconnection with El Niño events,” Advances in Geosciences, February 2006: pp. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1989. 19. The International Institute came to this site in the 1920s, but this building was completed in 1932. [19] With sanitation systems destroyed and refugees crowding into limited areas of dry ground, deadly diseases soon began decimating rural and urban citizens alike. Although partly the result of unsustainable patterns of agricultural expansion, Zhang Jiayan argues that this crisis also reflected the entrenched political and economic difficulties experienced by governments during the late Qing and early Republic (1800s to 1928). Having finally secured financial backing, the NFRC now had to distribute a huge quantity of relief throughout the disaster zone. Geographic Scope: 181,500 km2. In some cases relief camps offered an improvement over spontaneous squatter settlements, yet in others refugees experienced extremely high death tolls from disease. [17] Edmund Clubb, Communism in China: As Reported from Hankow in 1932 (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1968), p.104. Man Against Flood: A Story of the 1954 Flood on the Yangtse and of the Reconstruction That Followed It. Initial attempts to fund the relief effort through issuing bonds failed due to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, which had caused the bond market to collapse. Li et al. Although in most areas floodwater had receded by the winter, the problems of waterlogging, infrastructure damage, and refugee displacement continued well into the next spring. However, in 1942, outbreaks of jaundice were reported among some military personnel who had been vaccinated with 17D. The Hubei Provincial Archives collated a range of primary source material – including government telegrams, police reports, etc. David A. Pietz, Engineering the State: The Huai River and Reconstruction in Nationalist China, 1927-1937 (London: Routledge, 2002), p68. In Chinese this event is usually described as the Yangzi-Huai Flood (Jiang-Huai shuizai), yet the disaster was not limited to these two rivers. In 1927 IHD scientists in Africa discovered that Noguchiâs findings were related not to yellow fever, but to a bacterial infection called Weilâs disease. An estimated 150,000 people drowned during the first phase of the flood. [39] The flood began in late spring yet the first shipments of American relief grain only arrived in Shanghai in November. Yin Hongfu, Liu Guangrun, Pi Jiangao, Chen Guojin and Li Changan, “On the River–Lake Relationship of the Middle Yangtze Reaches,” Geomorphology 85 (2007): 197–207. In spite of this, their estimate has become influential, and is almost always reproduced without the important caveat included by the original authors. Guowen zhoukan [31] In the aftermath of the disaster, the cooperative organisations that had been used to reconstruct farming communities were adapted, becoming a central feature of the government’s rural economic policy. Those who lived in rural areas foraged for wild wetland food, including aquatic plants, fish, and waterfowl. The success of the yellow fever research and vaccination campaign had an immense impact on the reputation and direction of the IHD. 2 (2001). [36], The effect of the US wheat loan was also somewhat more ambiguous than was recognised in official reports. Probably the most famous Chinese language response was a short story entitled Water (Shui) by the acclaimed left-wing novelist Ding Ling. Outside the People’s Republic, O. Edmund Clubb’s Twentieth Century China contained one of the only analyses of the 1931 disaster. (Faith and the fight for power: researching the 1931 ‘Beat the City God’ movement in Gaoyou )” Jindaishi Yanjiu 1 (2010). house report no. Yet it was not the only response to the disaster. Fang Choumei had explored how a breakdown in hydraulic governance under the Guomindang left Wuhan vulnerable to inundation. Beyond these broader analyses, local gazetteers provide detailed descriptions of how the disaster unfolded in particular regions, whilst literary and historical materials (wenshi ziliao) offer oral history accounts of the flood, which have been recorded by Chinese scholars since the 1980s. Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1996. 201-205. Although the widespread decline in food availability played a major role in the ensuing subsistence crisis, socioeconomic factors were also important. [32], Whilst the assessment offered in official reports was overwhelmingly positive, in reality the relief campaign was not entirely successful.
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